Prejudice and Discrimination essays

Prejudice and Discrimination essays There must be a reason for the popularity, despite fifty years of desegregation, of racially biased humor. There must be a reason books of "politically correct" fairy tales got big laughs and made big bucks for their clever authors. There must be a reason that people laugh about being "politically correct" in their thoughts, words and actions. And perhaps the concept is so continually amusing because it refers to a psychology that does not naturally exist in human beings. At base, although there is so much talk about unity' and globalism' and all of us being one (and I don't pretend to argue that we are or are not one in spirit), we all do come to this plane of existence in a variety of wrappers.' Moreover, these wrappersour bodiesare motivated by an infinite variety of thought engines. It could be argued all day and all night whether the contents and proclivities of these minds and mental states are inherent or environmental. It doesn't matter. What is important is that when humans are attempting to be non-judgmental, non-discriminatory and unprejudiced, they are attempting to surmount a very basic animal reaction to the simple fact of inhabiting a body different from most other bodies, but quite Other researchers, too, have found that stereotyping and the prejudice to which it gives life (sometimes followed by discriminatory acts, and sometimes simply held in mind) are so hard to eradicate in humans that they must be part of the package. "We've found out that despite the cleverest efforts of smart, knowledgeable researchers, it is very hard to get people not to stereotype." (Pratto, 1992, 184) There are circumstances in which stereotyping is reduced, including having additional information about someone that would otherwise be stereotyped or when one is personally involved with a stereotyping target or are motivated to be ...

The Safest Type of Water Bottle to Drink From

The Safest Type of Water Bottle to Drink From Many people refill single-use plastic bottles (Plastic #1, PET) as a cheap way to carry water. That bottle was bought with water in it in the first place – what can go wrong? While a single refill in a freshly drained bottle probably will not cause any problem, there can be some issues when it is done repeatedly. First, these bottles are difficult to wash and are thus likely to carry the bacteria that have started colonizing it the minute you first unsealed it. In addition, the plastic used in the manufacturing of these bottles is not made for long term use. To make the plastic flexible, phthalates might be used in the manufacturing of the bottle. Phthalates are endocrine disruptors, a major environmental concern, and which can mimic the actions of hormones in our body. Those chemicals are relatively stable at room temperature (as well as when the plastic bottle is frozen), but they can be released into the bottle when the plastic is warmed. The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) states that any chemical released from the bottle has been measured at a concentration below any established risk threshold. Until we know more, it’s probably best to limit our use of single-use plastic bottles and to avoid using them after they have been microwaved or washed at high temperatures.   Plastic (#7, polycarbonate) The rigid, reusable plastic bottles often seen clipped to a backpack are labeled as plastic #7, which usually means there are made of polycarbonate. However, other plastics can get that recycling number designation. Polycarbonates have been under scrutiny lately because of the presence of bisphenol-A (BPA) that can leach into the bottle’s content. Numerous studies have linked BPA with reproductive health problems in test animals, and in humans too. The FDA states that so far they have found the levels of BPA leached from polycarbonate bottles to be too low to be a concern, but they do recommend limiting children’s exposure to BPA by not heating up polycarbonate bottles, or by selecting alternate bottle options. Plastics containing BPA are no longer used in the United States for the manufacturing of children’s sippy cups, baby bottles, and baby formula packaging. BPA-free polycarbonate bottles were advertised to capitalize on the public fears of BPA and fill the resulting market gap. A common replacement, bisphenol-S (BPS), was thought to be much less likely to leach out of the plastics, yet it can be found in the urine of most Americans tested for it. Even at very low doses, it has been found to disrupt hormone, neurological, and heart function in test animals. BPA-free does not necessarily mean safe. Stainless Steel Food grade stainless steel is a material that can safely be in contact with drinking water. Steel bottles also have the advantages of being shatter resistant, long-lived, and tolerant of high temperatures. When choosing a steel water bottle, make sure the steel is not found solely on the outside of the bottle, with a plastic liner inside. These cheaper bottles present similar health uncertainties as polycarbonate bottles.   Aluminum Aluminum water bottles are resistant and lighter than steel bottles. Because aluminum can leach into liquids, a liner has to be applied inside the bottle. In some cases that liner can be a resin that has been shown to contain BPA. SIGG, the dominant aluminum water bottle manufacturer, now uses BPA-free and phthalate free resins to line its bottles, but it declines to reveal the composition of those resins. As with steel, aluminum can be recycled but is energetically very costly to produce. Glass Glass bottles are easy to find cheaply: a simple store-bought juice or tea bottle can be washed and repurposed for water-carrying duty. Canning jars are just as easy to find. Glass is stable at a wide range of temperatures, and will not leak chemicals into your water. Glass is easily recyclable. The main drawback of glass is, of course, that it can shatter when dropped. For that reason, glass is not allowed at many beaches, public pools, parks, and campgrounds. However, some manufacturers produce glass bottles wrapped in a shatter-resistant coating. If the glass inside breaks, the shards remain inside the coating. An additional drawback of glass is its weight – gram-conscious backpackers will prefer lighter options. Conclusion At this moment, food-grade stainless steel and glass water bottles are associated with fewer uncertainties. Personally, I find the simplicity and lower economic and environmental costs of glass appealing. Most of the time, however, I find drinking tap water from an old ceramic mug perfectly satisfying. Sources Cooper et al. 2011. Assessment of Bisphenol A Released from Reusable Plastic, Aluminium and Stainless Steel Water Bottles. Chemosphere, vol. 85. Natural Resources Defense Council. Plastic Water Bottles. Scientific American.  BPA-Free Plastic Containers May Be Just as Hazardous.

Media, Culture and Identity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Media, Culture and Identity - Essay Example The media therefore plays an important role in the formation of a cultural identity because of the vital role that it (the media) plays in the communication process. It is seen that communication is an important part in the formation of a cultural identity as it is the means through which people interact and through the interaction, the culture is transmitted. The media is therefore seen to play a vital role in the formation and in the transmission of cultural identity for different people. The media is important in that it facilitates the process of communication between the different people in a community. By facilitating the process of communication, the media makes a major contribution in the creation and in the spread of culture. The media also has an important role in the evolution of the different cultural practices. The media can be said to extend the human capability to create, spread, and store messages. By extension, the media also enhances the human capability to engage i n activities that are relevant to the different aspects of culture. When the process of communication is facilitated, the cultural practices can be spread. What is seen in the media is also a reflection of the cultural activities that are being engaged in by the people in the society (Gentz and Kramer 2). The increase in the consumption of media has been instrumental in the formation of identity. The introduction of new media and new media technologies has been linked to the formation of new patterns of identification. The cultural orientation of a given group of people and the way that people identify themselves change when they begin to consume the different kinds of new media and new technologies that are available to them. An example of the new media and media technology that has influenced the way people identify themselves and their cultural identity is the increased uptake of satellite television and the increased use of the internet. This is because of the interconnectedness and the high level of interaction that is offered by the new media. Media plays an important role in the formation of culture and identity in that it has increased the level of mobility that the community has access to. The mobility that the media offers is from the increased access to symbolic world that is enabled by the media. The media technology also brings change in cultural identity in that it increases the level of self sufficiency among the members of the given community. The interdependence that is offered by the media has led to a situation in which the global events and happenings have a major impact on the local culture. The local cultures of those who consume the media assimilate the culture of those that they watch and read about from the different media sources. The media is a major source of information as well as a source of cultural information. When it comes to transmitting cultural information the different actors and events in the media are typified into the d ifferent codes. They (actors and events) are also made to generic forms that are in line with the culture of a given society. The media through the different actors and events recreates the codes through which the events and actors are interpreted. The physical and social institutions as well as the cultural spaces have been reconstructed by the media, through the introduction of unlimited access to events and actors that are not physically

Courseware Management System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Courseware Management System - Assignment Example This project tends the college administration work automatically using the machine. Their time assumption and moreover loads of work are lessened as instead of searching paper to paper file to file; searches are made automated. Similarly, manipulating data from one file to another takes number of hours for only organizing the profile of one student but now in the era of computers, using automated information system lessened the time in few minutes. Research for developing Information System is being held. The administrators, instructors and other staff faculty were questioned and queried. The answers made us think in different strategies the college is working on or you can say number of processes being held. One of the major and most tiring jobs that is done manual is making course profile for each student and maintaining its records. Few major laws of college while making a course calendar for students kept in mind are detailed. Different courses for professional field are taught in the college. Though there are many different fields. For example; BSCS, BBIT etc. For each filed there are number of different courses. Few courses are shared in the field of sciences. Going a bit in detail describes how each and every process works How the data is taken input and processed to other manipulations and evaluated till the end as a profile of the student Who uses it How it is used The following detail note from the research may reply to these questions. Higher administrative staff that has the knowledge of courses well makes this outline or calendar and decides for teaching; the instructors who can best teach each course available in the premises. The administration decides which course is important to study first and which to later. And though they make a prerequisite Course outline. Keeping all the above points and pre-requisite list in mind, administrators sit and consult the courses which are important to complete for the program. Now making an information system that automatically generates this outline; it has to keep checking all the points. Information System must have in database: List of programs offered in the college. List of courses to each program. (Note that each course is connected to a program that is while making a database course can be paired with the program) Number of units each course holds. (As this can be change later in years, so its better to hold it dynamically from database in code instead of hard-coding it and at time of maintenance opening each file to make the change in code.) Number of credit points each unit is of. (Similar to units this can vary in some later years.) Number of elective and core courses require to complete a program must also be defined. (Like above two they can also vary in later years.) There must be a column to against each course that gives the

Tesco is biggest supermarket

Tesco is biggest supermarket INTRODUCTION Tesco is biggest supermarket chain in the U.K. it has more than 1700 stores in the U.K alone and has about 2318 stores in the whole world. It also sells its products through online Tesco.com. Tesco is the U.Ks largest retailers which operate through its branches under the name of Extra, Metro, superstore and Express. Political and other conditions of UK and European union has very much influence on the Tesco performance. Tesco employs a large number of students and disable people and elderly people and pays them in most cases lower wages. Consumers are getting to know about health issues and their approach in choosing the food product is increasingly changing. (Ivythesis, 2009) Tesco has serving more than 40,000 food products including non food items and clothing to its customers. The companys own products which contribute about 50% of its sales are categorized in three different types Value, normal and finest. As a convenience produce most of Tesco store have gas store and filling stations. It is becoming one of U.K biggest independent filling outlets. Tesco is operating others business as well which includes retail banking, Tesco insurance, Tesco mobile as well. (bized, 2009) The company is also the first in U.K which allows their customer to pay or cash their cheques at the tills. Tesco has been employing a large number of British people and it facilitating it by allowing the new branded product into Tesco which helps the new companies to grow and employ more people. But recently company realized to look for some other products which are not available in U.K market. Recently Tesco has been facing stiff competitions from Sainsbury and Asda food giants. The goal of Tesco management is to focus on competitive advantage by adding more value in its products like Tesco has starts giving delivery services to its customers as well. The business and organizational strategy applied by Tesco has helps the organization to make its core business which is in the UK more strong. It also helps the company to expand its business internationally. These services includes providing the financial services like offering Credit cards, loans, insurance and banking services. There is also a strategy to find the potential market to enhance the market share of the company in Asia, Europe and in United States. The strategy to explore new market has started in 1997and it has been the foundation of success of Tesco business. There has been a huge expansion in its expansion of operations with the opening of thousands of store for the past12 years has been made possible with the implementation of this strategy, they are having competitive edge over other businesses and are profitable. In fact Tesco is market leader not even in U.K but also outside the U.K as well. (tesco plc, 2009) 1) STRATEGY OF TESCO: Tesco has been doing business in the stock exchange since 1947 and it was having share price 27 pence in the beginning. It has been keeping on growing and has become a popular name on the High street of the UK. Tesco has a strategy which is describes as Pile it high and sell it cheap but with time as people attitude has been changed and there become a trend in the better interior of stores, Tesco has made huge investments in the refurbishments of its stores and make them very attractive to shop for customers. It has added many value added service and product in its operations. It has start selling petrol and customer gets discount when they buy from Tesco and then they spend money to buy petrol. It has made a huge investment on the implementing of Tesco loyalty card scheme. 1.1 STRATEGY: Tesco has done well by successfully implementing the four parts of its business strategy. A strong UK core business , Non food Retailing services International The objectives of this strategy are: To be a successful retailers in the world. To grow the core UK business. To be as strong in the non-food items as in food items. To develop retailing services- such as Tesco personal Finance, Telecoms and Tesco.com. To put the community in the heart whatever we do. Tesco has taken considerable steps to attract customer with advent of Tesco Extra, Tesco Metro, Tesco Super stores and Tesco Express at town with filling stations. These stores provide all essentials food and non food items at very competitive prices. These stores give a direct challenge to other stores like ASDA, Sainsbury etc. Tesco has introduced a loyalty club card. Customer gets points from every purchase they made and then they can get product with these points. For Tesco this thing help to get a value data about customer, what is customers buying behavior and how they respond to the sales promotions carried on in the store. Apart from the product it sells it has worked on the other services as well. It has start providing the Loans, credit cards and online sale of products. Tesco has taken to expand in other countries like India, Japan, and U.S.A and in Europe as well. It has continuing working on the improvements of services to its customers. In USA it has made a partnership with Safeway Group. (articlebase,2009) 2) ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS: 2.1 PESTEL FRAMEWORK: 2.1.1 Political Factors: Tesco has stores worldwide and its main business is in UK. These countries includes many European countries. It also has stores in Taiwan, Japan and India as well. Political and other environmental factors of UK and European are having a too much influence on the Tesco performance. These legislations advise to these stores to hire people for different position in the company. These people include the students, disables and senior citizens as well. As local business in the Tesco suffers heavily because of competitions, in order to survive these local stores cuts the jobs so Tesco has hire a large number of People to accommodate them. Tesco usually pays them low wages. 2.1.2 Economical Factors: Tesco is very much concern to the economic factors because prices and demand gets affected with this. Goods and services are heavily affected if the economic conditions of people is not good and many people are unemployed and it influence the people purchasing capacity so demand for the goods and services will be affected. Tesco is heavily dependant on UK market, Although international business are growing but Tesco is still dependent on the U.K food market and if the demand for UK food market get slow down then it will badly affect the Tesco performance. 2.1.3 Social/Cultural Factors: Currently the U.K people trend shows that they prefer to go at that store from where they could get everything. There has been huge demographics changes in the UK population happened i-e ageing people, increase in the number of female workers and declining in the preparations of food in the home, which has force Tesco to sell supporting products and services as well. Customers demands of services and products are created by the change of their social and cultural changes, their beliefs. People are recognizing the hygienic problems. Tesco is adopting a product mix in order to meet the demand of organic products. It has start mentioning the product with labels on it for people who strictly want to use product which are free from animals ingredients. U.K has a diverse population from different cultural background people. Areas which are densely populated with Asian people prefer to go for their traditional foods so keep this thing in mind Tesco management have introduced mostly those products which are in demand in those areas. (321books, 2009) 2.1.4 Technological factors: Technological improvement has benefited both the company and customers. Goods are readily available in the store which has increased the customer satisfaction and it has become easier to manage the ordering system. Customers get served more quickly than before. Tesco stores are utilizing the following technologies in their outlets: Wireless devices Intelligent scale Electronic shelves labeling Self check out machine Radio frequency identification. By the use of electronic tills and fast fund transferring machine and new scanner has increased the operational activities of the Tesco which has improve the image of the Tesco further. (Finch, 2004). 2.1.5 Environmental factors: Starting from 2003, managers were under great pressure to look into society issues and adopt policy which benefits for both the society and for the company. (Lind green and Hingley, 2003). In order to prove that company care about society, they need to clearly work about environmental issues. By recognizing this trend Tesco has been working on the environmental issue to prove that it is a socially responsible organization which cares about the environment. Government has introduced new policies which aim to reduce the waste pollution and encourage the companies to take steps to reduce the pollution. Recently a new legislation has been created in which a heavy tax has been imposed on those products which are not environment friendly. This tax has been directly affecting the Tescos products and damaging the relations with suppliers and customers. 2.1.6 Legislative factors: Tesco performance has been affected by various government policies and legislation. Tesco is bound by law no to take payments from supplier to take order for goods and any such kind of activities. The existence of strong competitors has created a demand of stiff competitions in prices of branded products and a strong demand for product diversification. Government policies to control the monopoly and reduction of buyers powers can reduce the chances to enter in this sector with such controls. (Mintel Report, 2004: Myers, 2004). Tesco has been giving discount on buying the petrol to its customers based on amount it spends on the purchase of groceries at the stores. Tescos keep the prices on the promotions low while it increase the prices on other products in the store in order to compensate. 3) PORTERS FIVE FORCES FRAMEWORK: 3.1 Threats of new entrants: There is four big supermarket which are Tesco, Sainsbury, ASDA, Liddell which makes 75% of total market and Waitrose, Somerfield and Budgens makes about 10% percent of total market. The trend in people of UK has been changed to one stop shopping and they want to get everything at one place so majority of grocery stores has transformed into one stop supermarket. These big supermarkets heavily affects the surrounding butcher and food shops. These big supermarket does not let any new business to come into their area as they give very stiff competitions and starting business in those area are more difficult because of huge capital investment. In order to make a solid position in the UK market, Tesco has been spending a huge amount of money on the development of existing infrastructure. 3.2 Bargaining Power of Supplier: Suppliers power of bargaining get affected from big store as the supplier fear that if they put their own conditions of bargaining then they might lose it client and will not be able to operate their business. Tesco always negotiate with suppliers to get the best competitive prices and get a better price as compared to small food chains. The UK small food chains also threatened from this big supermarket as they get cheap goods from abroad for their promotional activities. So the relations with the suppliers can have affects on the freedom and margin of the company. (321books, 2009) 3.3 Bargaining Power of Customers: Tesco club card scheme is very successful in order to retain the customers with Tesco which has increase the profit margin of the Tesco significantly. In order to fulfill the customers needs, the customized services such as lower prices, better choices, constant flow of promotional products and availability of all the product which customers demands enables Tesco to retain its customers. In recent years a huge changes has occurred in the food chain stores due to a change of behavior of customers, So Tesco has started keeping more non food items as well in its stores. It has also provides a strategic expansion of its business into new markets such as retail banking, pharmacies, phone shops. 3.4 Threats of substitutes: A demand for a particular product can be reduce due to a general substitution because there is always a threat that customer will switch to alternatives (Porter, 1980). Substitute for needs and product for product has been observed in the grocery industry. It is more affected with the new trend. Small stores are opening up in the industry. In this case supermarket like Tesco is trying to taking over the small stores and opening up big stores in town centers. (Ritz, 2005). 3.5 Bargaining Power of Competitors: Tesco is getting lot of customer information through its loyalty club card and trying to improve its relations with the consumers. In UK food industry, because of high competitive expansions, most of these big stores are taking further steps by investing more money in the information system of the business. 4) CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS: By doing an evaluation of Tesco industry it has become an important to identify the success factors to consider the effectiveness of Tesco. 4.1 Branding and Reputation: The company is expanding rapidly by working hard on its packaging and spending every penny on promotions which contribute to the environment as well. Tesco is doing well in the information system applications. By introducing loyalty club card system which has helped the Tesco to get a valuable data about customers behaviors about their spending, choices and etc. 4.2 IT integration: Tesco is always step ahead in applying the new technology and it has become a necessity rather luxury in Tescos operations. A system that controls stocks, helping to serves the customers; keeping valuable record of customers transactions and ordering system is the lifeline of the Tesco. 4.3 Supplier Management: To have a competitive position in the market Tesco also get most of its products from oversee countries which are cheaper as compared to UK. Tesco has been supporting British companies for its branded products but recently it has start importing products which are not manufacturing in the UK. To keep a better communication to get its products on time Tesco has adopted a advance communication system which enables the suppliers to delivers products on time. 5) MARKET OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTATIONS: Tesco has plan to introduce two types of strategies, first one will going to focus to explore the market and find new customer with its new products and second one is on the diversifications of products. 5.1 Joint development and joint ventures: Tescos has a long term strategy to focus on the Japan market. In making possible Tesco is making partnerships with local business to enter into the market. By doing joint ventures Tesco will have a economy of scale and has made a good image of its brand name. (Andrew, 2009) By the entering into partnership with the local businesses in the foreign countries, Tesco will get the necessary skill in order to penetrate in the market. So in future it will be easy for Tesco to operate its operations independently. By doing joint venture with the international companies Tesco will improve its operational skills as well. 5.2 Product Diversification: UK is diverse population which comprises of different ethnic people from different countries. Tesco can do more development expansion by opening up new stores in those areas where people strictly go for their traditional food, so Tesco can add whole range of products which is in demand in these areas. 6) CRITICAL EVALUATION: Ro have a sustainable competitive advantage Tesco should apply following strategies: Firstly Tesco should adopt a strategy of cost leadership by offering goods and services to its customers at low prices in a broad market. This strategy will help the Tesco to reduce its cost, Tesco will be able to sell its products competitively and thus generate huge profit. If Tesco has to adopt another strategy then, It has to offers it products and services with a unique features which customers value it. Then Tesco has to gives some other value added services in technology, competitive price, special features and customer service improvements. Last strategy of niche is from either cost leadership strategy or product differentiation but focus on narrow market. In order to perform cost leadership strategy Tesco has to work on internal efficiencies that will help Tesco to cope with external pressure. As these both strategies are aimed at broader market, it may be possible than Tesco focus on small market or with a limited range of product. In other words, Tesco may be pursuing the strategy to be a leader in cost and keeping a huge variety in product. This can be done with a specific product in a market or by selecting a specific market for its products. The problem which many of organizations have that these organization implement all these strategies one time and most of them stuck in middle. But Tesco is very careful when it select a market, they have a clear strategy regarding it. (Wringley, 1988) 7) CONCLUSION Tesco is a very well established organization in the UK. Tesco apply different strategy in the organization to make the business grows. Its primary focus is to attract the customers and keep the loyal customers attached with the organization. In order to evaluate the customers it has apply different technology process in order to know the customers needs, their attitude and likes and dislikes. It has a specific layout which has been applied in all its branches. Tesco is investing a lot money on its information technology improvement which has helped it to improve its sales and get a competitive advantage over its competitors. 8) REFERENCES Publications from the Tesco preliminary result.2004. [online]. [Accessed on 2 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: . Publications from the Tesco web site. Tesco plc.2009. [online]. [Accessed 2 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.tescoplc.com/plc/about_us/strategy. Publications from 321books web site. Porters five forces model.2009. [online]. [Accessed 5 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.321books.co.uk/catalog/tesco/porters-five-forces.htm. Andrew.2007. Article base web site. [online]. [Accessed 5 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.articlesbase.com/sales-articles/success-of-tesco-in-great-britain-163894.html. Publications from a article from web site.2006. [online]. [Accessed 8 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://ivythesis.typepad.com/term_paper_topics/2009/08/tesco-strategic-analysis.html. WRINGLEY, N. 1988. Store choice, store location and market analysis. NY (USA). T.J press. [Accessed on 8 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=xbYOAAAAQAAJpg=PA106dq=tesco+analysisei=xkZDS7naLqXczQTRkZDtDgcd=1#v=onepageq=tesco%20analysisf=false. PANDELETON, D. 2004. Tescos Steering Wheel Strategy. [online]. [Accessed on 9 December 2009]. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Business%20Strategy/BSTR187.htm.

Montessori VS Gibson: Education and Perception

Maria Montessori and Eleanor Gibson are two of the primary education theorists in the last 100 years.   Both are female, which was rare in their fields at the time, and both contributed to education and learning theories in ways that are still widely used today.   However, each has a different perspective on education, and a different and unique contribution to the field of educational research.   Overall, there are many significant similarities and differences in the educational theories created and implemented by Montessori and Gibson.Montessori was born in Italy in 1870.   She attended medical school there despite protests about her gender, and was the first woman to ever become a doctor in Italy.   After medical school, Montessori went on to work with poor children.   She noticed that many of these children could not necessarily benefit from medical care, but could benefit from educational opportunities that they did not have.   After noticing this, Montessori went on to teach children and develop a system of education that is used throughout the world today.Her early success in teaching was met with surprise, as even she had been skeptical that her methods would work.   The progress that these economically poor children showed was amazing to her, and to others who came to see what they could do.   In fact, efforts were so successful that Montessori went on to open up other ‘poor houses’ around Italy, and later, in other countries.   Towards the end of her life, she traveled around, teaching the ‘Montessori method’ to other teachers in countries throughout the world (Cossentino).Gibson was born in America in 1910.   As a child, she was discouraged from attending school because of her gender, but persevered and attended anyway.   After secondary school, she attended Yale and eventually earned a Ph.D. in developmental psychology.   Gibson then began to work with children and animals, doing experiments to see what babies knew from birth and what was learned.Her most famous experiment is the â€Å"visual cliff,† where a drop-off is set up and covered by glass.   Babies aged 6 to 14 months are placed at the edge and encouraged to crawl onto the clear glass.   However, all babies refused, suggesting that they could perceive depth from birth.   Gibson used the information she gathered from these experiments to investigate the way people learn and perceive their environment.   Gibson’s experiments are still being carried out by her students today (Gibson).Maria Montessori created a method for teaching children that today is used to educate children from birth through age 18, although it is mostly commonly used for ages three to six.   The general principle is to allow a child his freedom to work at his own pace, on the activities he chooses.   Several age-appropriate activities are possible, and the child chooses what he is interested in and investigates it thorough ly.   Children at work are never interrupted, and individual work takes precedence over group work.   Additionally, all groups are multi-age, with three ages in one group.   The most common age group is the three to six year old ages.   These groupings exist so the older children will teach the younger children, advancing both of their learning (www.montessori.edu).Gibson’s approach to education is different.   Her studies focused on perceptual development and innate knowledge in babies rather than education later in life, although her theories had implications for education later in life.   Gibson is known for starting the field of perceptual development in psychology, as little was known about it at the time.   Most doctors and psychologists assumed that to babies, the world was nothing more than a confusing buzz of sounds and sights, and that they could not make any sense of it or perceive it at all in the way of adults.These doctors assumed that babies learn ed to perceive as they aged and were taught about the world around them.   Gibson performed many experiments throughout her years as a researcher that disproved this view and brought about a brand-new view of perceptual development.   She wrote two books, one in 1967 on her research thus far, and one in 1991 that summed up what she had done in her lifetime (Gibson).The major difference between Montessori and Gibson is that Montessori was a doctor who specialized in teaching children based on their individual needs throughout their lives, while Gibson primarily focused on what children already knew when they were born and was not overly concerned with later life, as older children had already been studied more.   Gibson does, however, focus some on the processes of education throughout life, although primarily in what children know at birth and how this affects the way they learn later in life.They were similar, though, in their belief that children were different than others t hought.   Children were not stupid, were not blank slates, and did not need help in learning everything.   Children were born with innate abilities to learn and to perceive.   Gibson and Montessori both furthered this idea through their work.   Both women also helped to show that children could work seriously, even from a young age; that their attention spans are long enough and their perceptions are good enough to learn on their own.Gibson did further experiments, mostly with infants, and often with animals, as certain types of experiments are not ethical in humans.   One significant finding was in how human children learned to read and recognize letters.   Gibson theorized that children would learn by seeking out the features that are different about the letters, or â€Å"contrastive features.†Ã‚   She came upon this theory based on experiments with animals that showed this was how they learned to recognize colors, patterns, and other objects.   It turned out that this was, indeed, how children learned, by recognizing different features in the letters to distinguish one from another (Spelke).Also, Gibson was trying to focus on the ‘mechanisms which operate in all learning (Gibson).’   Her goal was to discover, through her research on perception, how exactly humans learned, and how figuring this out could benefit them in some way.   This research was crucial later to show how much people really knew and were capable of learning at all ages.Montessori did not focus nearly as much on how children perceived, but on how they learned (which is, in general, what Montessori and Gibson have most in common).   Montessori emphasized that all children learned differently and needed an environment which nurtured this.   Children who are put in an environment and allowed to learn what they chose tended to choose to learn as much as possible.   Montessori also emphasizes creativity through learning to do a number of different thi ngs, and to learn them correctly.   For example, music lessons can be a part of Montessori if a child chooses; but the teachers encourage the students to learn to play an instrument correctly, not to use it for an unorthodox purposes, like using a violin as a hammer (www.montessori.edu).Additionally, Montessori focuses on work, rather than play in her education model.   Most preschools believe that children learn through random play, while Montessori emphasizes purposeful work even from the young ages in order to investigate and learn about the world (Cossentino 63).Both methods are based on the premise that children know more than they are given credit for.   Gibson was sure that children could understand and perceive far more than psychologists thought they could, and her experiments showed that this was true.   In fact, Gibson did experiments on animals that proved even further what the experiments with babies began to show.   Gibson took newborn kids (baby goats) and p laced them on the visual cliff, and even at birth they would not go over it.She also placed kittens on the cliff once they were old enough to move and see, and they would not go over it.   Gibson reared some animals in complete darkness for awhile, and some would still not go over the cliff when they entered the light.   Kittens were an exception to this.   For a few days, they crawled across the whole surface and did not notice the cliff; after that, they, too, stopped going over the edge.   Gibson tried to place them on the cliff right away, so they would learn that crawling onto the glass was safe, but once kittens could see better, even though they knew the glass was safe from previous experience, they still would not go across it once they could see the cliff, suggesting that the perception of this drop is innate and not learned (Spelke).Innate ability is the key to Gibson and Montessori.   Both believed that children had innate ability to learn, to recognize, and to know.   Montessori built her schools on this premise.   In fact, many schools have children who are discovering and understanding subjects that adults think are far beyond their capabilities at a young age.   Elementary age students may teach themselves advanced mathematics or science concepts, ideas that are usually taught in high school.   The Montessori method encourages children to use their innate curiosity and ability to investigate to find out about their world and learn as much as they can about it (www.montessori.edu).Children are unusually intelligent and have strong capabilities.   They are not born with no knowledge, no skills, and no ability to learn.   Both Gibson and Montessori’s research showed that this is true.   Children are born knowing things, and born with a thirst to know more things.   Children learn by perceiving the world around them and continuing to try things out until they figure out how it works, and why.Montessori had an early i dea about how children learned, and created a system to teach them in that natural way.   Today’s Montessori schools are all across the world, at every age group, public and private.   Montessori still means that children learn individually, even when they are in high school.   Students who study by the Montessori method tend to score above average on standardized tests (despite a complete lack of teaching to the test) and tend to get into good colleges and succeed well in life.This is because students are given the opportunity to work individually from a young age, which leads to self-motivation.   Self-motivation is the most crucial part of the theory; children will learn far more if they are doing it on their own, based on intrinsic motivation, rather than extrinsic motivation.   The Montessori method promotes this intrinsic motivation from the beginning (www.montessori.edu).Gibson’s work, which came later, explained in psychological detail what Montessori seemed to ‘innately know,’ just as her students innately knew about the world around them.   Gibson’s experiments shed light on the way children perceived their world and how much they actually knew and understood before anyone taught them.Today, many people are still a bit skeptical about the ideas put forth by these two women.   However, many of the major educational and psychological movements are based on the work that both women did in their individual fields.   Gibson’s experiments have given way to a plethora of research in cognitive and perceptual psychology, specifically aimed at trying to figure out how infants and animals really think and understand.The result of all of these years of experiments and programs it that children are better prepared to learn about their world in a way that makes sense to them.   Children are better focused, better behaved, and learn more, better, and more quickly when their natural abilities are recognized and respected.  Ã‚   Children in Montessori classrooms or those with teachers who believe in their ability to think, learn, and perceive without explicit teaching thrive better than those who have teachers who think they are merely blank slates, empty vessels waiting to be taught to look, listen, think, and perceive.The educational world has both Gibson and Montessori to thank for their new insights into teaching young children.   Both women made significant contributions to the field at a time when women were not welcomed into medical fields.   Both women had to fight for their right to an education, and both women were intelligent enough and savvy enough to get their degrees and conduct their programs despite opposition.   Without them, education would not be what it is today.BibliographyCossentino, Jacqueline M. (2006).   â€Å"Big Work: Goodness, Vocation, and Engagement in the Montessori Method.†Ã‚   Curriculum Inquiry.   36, 1, 63 – 92.Gibson, Eleanor J. (1940). â€Å"A Systematic Application of the Concepts of Generalization and Differentiation to Verbal Learning.† Psychological Review.   47, 196 – 229.Gibson, Eleanor J. (1934). â€Å"Retention and the Interpolated Task.† American Journal of Psychology.   46, 603 – 610.â€Å"The International Montessori Index (2006).†Ã‚   Accessed December 18, 2006.   Website: www.montessori.edu.  Spelke, Elizabeth (2003).   â€Å"Gibson’s Work: An Extended Reply to Helmholtz.†Ã‚   Association for Psychological Science, 16, 4.

What You Need to Know About Anatomy and Physiology Essay Samples

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